Adolescent Years Essay

A child’s body begins a period of rapid change in size and shape approximately around the age of 10 years in girls and 12 years in boys. This is called the â€Å"adolescent growth spurt. † During the next four years, an average girl may grow 10 inches taller and gain 40 to 50 pounds. An average boy may grow 12 inches taller and gain 50 to 60 pounds. At the same time, their body shape begins to change, too. The nutritional requirements of young people are influenced primarily by the spurt of growth that occurs at puberty. The peak of growth is generally between 11 and 15 years for girls and 13 and 16 years for boys. The nutrient needs of individual teenagers differ greatly, and food intake can vary enormously from day to day, so that those with deficient or excessive intakes on one day may well compensate on the next. In this period of life, several nutrients are at greater deficiency risk including iron and calcium. Iron Among adolescents, iron-deficiency anemia is one of the most common diet-related deficiency diseases. Adolescents are particularly susceptible to iron deficiency anaemia in view of their increased blood volume and muscle mass during growth and development. This raises the need of iron for building up hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood that carries oxygen, and for the related protein myoglobin, in muscle. The increase in lean body mass (LBM), composed mainly of muscle, is more important in adolescent boys than in girls. In preadolescent years, LBM is about the same for both sexes. Once adolescence starts, however, the boy undergoes a more rapid accumulation of LBM for each additional kilogram of body weight gained during growth, ending up with a final LBM maximum value double that of the girl. The iron needs of adolescents are relatively high; this is because iron is needed to replace the blood lost during menstruation in girls and to support the growth of muscle mass in boys. The RDA for iron for boys is 11 mg/day, while the RDA for girls is 15 mg/day. If energy intake is adequate and adolescents consume food sources of heme iron such as lean meat/fish/poultry each day, they should be able to meet the RDA for iron. All these factors should be taken into account when assessing iron needs in this group of age. One of the most important diet considerations during adolescence is an increase in the intake of iron-rich foods such as lean meats and fish as well as beans, dark green vegetables, nuts and iron-fortified cereals and other grains. Iron from animal foods is much better absorbed than iron from non-animal sources. Adolescents following vegetarian diets are therefore at an increased risk of iron-deficiency. However, vitamin C (e. g. from citrus fruits) and animal proteins (meat & fish) assist in the absorption of heme iron. Calcium The skeleton accounts for at least 99% of the body stores of calcium and the gain in skeletal weight are most rapid during the adolescent growth spurt. About 45% of the adult skeletal mass is formed during adolescence, although its growth continues well beyond the adolescent period and into the third decade. All the calcium for the growth of the skeleton must be derived from the diet. The largest gains are made in early adolescence, between about 10-14 years in girls and 12-16 years in boys. The AI for calcium from age 9 through adolescence is 1,300 mg/day. This amount of calcium can be difficult for many adolescents to consume because the quality of foods they select is often less than optimal to meet their nutrient needs. However, this level of calcium intake is easily achieved by eating at least 3 servings of dairy foods or calcium-fortified products daily. The achievement of peak bone mass during childhood and adolescence is crucial to reduce the risk of osteoporosis in later years. By eating several servings of dairy products, such as milk, yogurt and cheese, the recommended calcium intake can be achieved. As well as a good dietary supply of calcium, other vitamins or minerals, like vitamin D and phosphorous, are needed for building up bones. Physical activity is also essential, particularly weight-bearing exercise, which provides the stimulus to build and retain bone in the body. Activities such as cycling, gymnastics, skating, ball games, dancing and supervised weight training for at least 30-60 minutes a day, three to five times a week can help build bone mass and density. Making the right dietary and lifestyle choices early in life will help young people develop health-promoting behaviors’ that they can follow throughout life. Encouraging Healthy Foods Dietary habits that affect food preferences, energy consumption and nutrient intakes, are generally developed in early childhood and particularly during adolescence. The home and school environments play a major role in determining a child’s attitude to, and consumption of individual foods. Teenagers, as well as being exposed to periodic food fads and slimming trends, tend to skip meals and develop irregular eating habits. One of the most frequently missed meals is breakfast. Studies show that breakfast plays an important role in providing needed energy and nutrients after an overnight fast and can aid in concentration and performance at school. Snacks generally form an integral part of meal patterns for both children and teenagers. Younger children cannot eat large quantities at one sitting and often get hungry long before the next regular mealtime. Mid-morning and mid-afternoon snacks can help to meet energy needs throughout the day. Fast-growing and active teenagers often have substantial energy and nutrition needs and the teaching of food and nutrition in the school curricula will enable children to have the knowledge to make informed choices about the foods in their regular meals and snacks. Energy Needs Normally, the energy requirements of adolescents tend to parallel their growth rate, and individuals meet their energy needs by means of their appetite with adequate precision. As a result, the majority of adolescents maintain energy balance, and a varied food intake provides sufficient nutrients to ensure optimal growth and development. Stress and emotional upsets however can seriously affect the energy balance in adolescents, resulting in the consumption of too little or too much food. Mild or severe infections, nervousness, menstrual, dental or skin problems (acne) can result in alterations of appetite, and those adolescents on marginal diets are the most vulnerable. Emotional stress is often associated with food faddism and slimming trends, both of which can lead to eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa. On the other hand, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents is now a major nutritional problem and the condition is likely to persist into adulthood. Developing adolescents are particularly concerned about their body image and excessive weight can have profound effects on their emotional well being as well as on their physical health. The cause of obesity is multifactorial and socio-economic, biochemical, genetic, and psychological factors all closely interact. Lack of activity plays an important role in the development, progression and perpetuation of obesity in adolescence. Surveys of young people have found that the majority is largely inactive and health professionals and governments are now encouraging higher levels of physical activity among children and adolescents. Physical inactivity does not only have a prime role in the development of overweight and obesity, but also on the development of chronic diseases such as heart disease, certain cancers, diabetes, hypertension, bowel problems and osteoporosis in later life. In addition, physical activity is related to improvements in body flexibility, balance, agility and co-ordination and strengthening of bones. The current recommendation is for children to try to be physically active for at least 60 minutes daily. The adolescent growth spurt requires many different nutrients. Calcium is especially important for bone growth and health because 45% of the bone an adult has is built up during adolescence. Although some teenagers become concerned that they are not changing as rapidly as their friends or other classmates in school, there is wide variation in the age at which the adolescent growth spurts starts. It is generally more dependent on the hereditary characteristics than on being a certain age. It is important to emphasize that changes in body size and shape are part of normal adolescent development. Females gain proportionally more body fat during this time, while males gain proportionally more muscle and bone mass. One of the changes taking place during adolescence is the varying hormonal levels in the body. These hormones are responsible for the changes seen in the physical development of the body and secondary characteristics such as facial hair growth and deepening voices. For most micronutrients, recommendations are the same as for adults. Exceptions are made for certain minerals needed for bone growth (calcium and phosphorus). Dieting is not appropriate at this stage of life, it is important for teens to stick to a healthy diet and get lots of physical activity. A healthy diet consists of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, lean proteins, low-fat dairy products, beans, lentils and healthy fats from olive oil, avocado, nuts and fish. It is also important for teens to stay hydrated and drink water throughout the day. The following menu provides approximately 2,500 calories and is broken down into three meals and two snacks. Since you don’t have control over how many calories your teen eats, here are some ways you can encourage them to eat healthy. Encourage them to eat snacks between meals and to try not to go over 4 hours without eating. This will help keep their energy up and help them to stay focused in school. Encourage them to include a fruit or vegetable with every meal and snack. This will help to ensure they are eating adequate vitamins, minerals and fiber. Breakfast Breakfast should include 2 servings of fruit, 1 serving of protein and 3 servings of whole grains. An example meal is 1/2 cup of berries, 6 oz. range juice, 1 whole grain bagel and 2 tbsp. peanut butter Mid-morning Snack A mid-morning snack should include1 dairy or dairy substitute serving, 2 whole grains and 1 fruit. An example snack is string cheese, 8 whole grain crackers and ? cup of grapes. Lunch Lunch should include 2 servings of vegetables, 3 whole grains, 3 servings of protein and 2 servings of dairy or dairy substitute. An example meal is a turkey sandwich with 2 slices of whole grain bread, 3 oz. of turkey, 2 slices of cheese, 10 whole grain pretzel sticks, ? cup baby carrots. Bring a separate bag of veggies like tomatoes and lettuce to add to the sandwich. Mid-afternoon Snack A mid-afternoon snack should include 1 whole grain, 1 protein and 1 fruit. An example snack is to make trail mix and mix together ? cup whole grain cereal and 1/4 cup nuts and dried fruit. Dinner Dinner should include 3 servings of vegetables, 4 whole grains, 3 servings of protein, and 1 serving of low-fat dairy or dairy substitute. An example meal is 1. 5 cups of whole grain pasta topped with ? cup tomato-based pasta sauce; 1 slice of garlic toast; 3 oz. of chicken breast; 1 cup salad topped with carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers and olives; 1 tbsp. salad dressing; and 1 cup of skim or 1-percent milk.

Effect of Internal Controls on Financial Performance Essay

Over the past decade, Africa and other developing regions have been in the midst of tremendous changes. Market liberalization and governmental decentralization policies have interfaced with globalization and urbanization trends to dramatically transform social, political, economic and cultural lives. In this context of rapid change, SME operations can no longer remain behind serving only to meet sustenance income for their owners. SMEs engagements have to become a dynamic and integral part of the market economy. The identification of factors that determine new venture performance such as survival, growth or profitability has been one of the most central fields of entrepreneurship research (Sarasvathy, 2004). A multitude of research papers has focused on exploring various variables and their impact on performance (Bamford et al., 2004). However, in order to be able to analyze and model the performance of new ventures and SMEs, the complexity and dynamism they are facing as well as the fact that they may not be a homogenous group but significantly different in regard to many characteristics (Gartner et al., 1989) have to be taken into account. In line with the above, there have been challenging debates all over the world on the role played by Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) towards economic development. Therefore, a vast literature on the growth and performance of SMEs has been developed over the years. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have had a privileged treatment in the development literature, particularly over the last two decades. Hardly any arguments are put forward against SMEs, even if development policies do not necessarily favour them and economic programs, voluntarily or not, often continue to result in large capital investment. Arguments for SMEs come from almost all corners of the development literature programs, particularly in the less developed countries (LDCs), tend to emphasise the role of SMEs, even if practical results differ from the rhetoric. (Carlos Nuno Castel-Branco. May, 2003) Therefore, SMEs seem to be an accepted wisdom within the development debate. It is believed that growth in SMEs should have a positive effect on the living conditions of the people, their income level, housing, utilities. Castel-Branco (2003), in a study, revealed that this is not always true because areas where SMEs are performing so well attracts public attention and many competitors begin to troop into the area. This subsequently leads to over congestion with its associated problems of which accommodation is not an exception. The structure of SMEs in Ghana as perhaps one of the main engines of growth can be viewed as rural and urban enterprises. For urban enterprises, they can either be planned or unplanned. The planned-urban enterprises are characterized by paid employees with registered offices whereas unplanned-urban enterprises are mostly confined to the home, open space, temporal wooden structures, and employment therein is family or apprentices oriented. In the recent pursuit of economic progress, Ghana as a developing country has generally come to recognize that the SME sector may well be the main driving force for growth, due to its entrepreneurial resources and employment opportunities. Nevertheless, the existing attempts to explore empirically the roles played by SME in the economic development of a nation are still somewhat ambiguous. This can be attributed, more or less, to the fact that when examining economic progress per se, economists have tended to ignore the industrial structure of the economy and the impact this can have on such development. The ambiguity of the role of SMEs has therefore necessitated the need for a study to be conducted to access the actual impact of the proliferation of SMEs on the inhabitants of the Medina community. 1.2 Problem Statement The small business sector is recognized as an integral component of economic development and a crucial element in the effort to lift countries out of poverty (Wolfenson, 2001). The dynamic role of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries as engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved has long been recognized. The growth of small scale businesses in Ghana so rapid, that it is now seen as a daily affair. Many Potential owners of SMEs move to areas where the feel they can succeed to set them up there. More so, many factors may contribute to the movement of people to settle at certain geographical areas. It is believed that the factors that influence migration include the need for peaceful and violent free environment, the need for fertile business locations, the desire for privacy, government policy and a host of others. Specifically, with reference to the above, the Medina municipality of the Greater Accra region has experienced a noticeable growth and increase in the number movements into the area and for that matter SMEs increase in the last few years. It is important to mention that some research studies have been conducted to determine the real impact of migrations on host societies. In line with the above, this study sorts to assess the nature of SMEs in Medina with respect to the involvement of men and women, the main sources funds for them, the main objectives and challenges faced by SMEs in Medina, reasons the explosion of SMEs in Medina and the scio-economic impacts of this growth of SMEs in Medina. 1.3 Objectives: 1.3.1 Main Objective The main objective of this study is to assess the general impact of the plorefication of SMEs in Medina on the Medina municipality of the Greater Accra region. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives 1. To assess the nature and forms of SMEs in Medina and the relative involvement of women and men. 2. To identify the main objectives and challenges of SMEs in Medina and to rank them in order of importance. 3. Assess the main sources of capital for SMEs in Medina. 4. To assess the status of SMEs in Medina with regard to business registration, savings, record keeping and business account holding. 5. To determine the factors that account for the emergence of small scale businesses in the Medina community 6. To assess the socio-economic impacts of the growth of SMEs in Medina 1.4 Research Questions The study shall provide answers to the following research questions: 1. What is the nature of SME operation in Medina and the relative involvement of women and men? 2. What are the main objectives and challenges of SMEs in Medina and which are ranked more importance? 3. What are the main sources of capital for SMEs in Medina? 4. What are the status of SMEs in Medina with regard to business registration, savings, record keeping and business account holding? 5. What factors have accounted for the emergence of small scale businesses in the Medina community? 6. What are the socio-economic impacts of the growth of SMEs in Medina? 1.5 Justification of the Study It is difficult to analyze the performance, nature of operation and behavior of the SME sector in Ghana due to the lack of comprehensive data on them and their activities. The sector is not classified into sub-sectors and the last industrial survey was conducted in 1995 but covered only medium and large-scale industries. In respect of this, the justification of this study rests on the fact that, study will help provide information on the nature of SMEs in Medina with respect to the involvement of men and women, the main sources funds for them, the main objectives and challenges faced by SMEs in Medina, reasons the explosion of SMEs in Medina and the socio-economic impacts of this growth of SMEs in Medina. Furthermore, the study while provide vital information policy makers of the Medina municipality and all other stakeholders of the Medina community. Finally the study while produce information to will add on to existing literature for further studies in this area. 1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study Due to time and resource constrains, this study is restricted particularly to the Medina community. The study focuses on the factors that account for the growth of SMEs in Medina and the socio-economic impacts of this change on the people of Medina among others. The study is limited in scope because it fails to cover the entire population of Ghana. The findings of this study may therefore lack generalizability as far as other communities in Ghana are concern. 1.7 Organization of the Study Chapter 1 deals with the background of the study, the problem statement, objectives of the study, justification of the study and organization of the study. Chapter 2 reviews both theoretical and empirical literatures on SMEs in general, in Ghana among others. Chapter 3 introduces the study area and describes the methodologies used to analyze the problems stated. It includes the methods used for data collection, and procedure for data analysis. Chapter 4 is devoted to presentation and discussion of results. Summary statistics of the variables used in the study are presented and discussed. Chapter 5 winds up this study drawing conclusions, their policy implications. Suggestions for future research based on the findings are made. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews works on small and medium enterprises in the world, Africa and Ghana. The state of SMEs in Ghana is reviewed here. Also, Works on performance and determinants of performance of SMEs are captured. Furthermore, a section of this chapter assesses the various methods of measuring performance of SMEs which while help open up the understanding of the state of SMEs in Medina. Finally, this chapter closes with some migration theories to help facilitate the comprehension of the factors that actually account for human migration, in this case migration to Medina. 2.2 Definitions and Concepts of SMEs There is no single, uniformly acceptable, definition of a small firm (Storey, 1994). Firms differ in their levels of capitalization, sales and employment. Hence, definitions that employ measures of size (number of employees, turnover, profitability, net worth, etc.) when applied to one sector could lead to all firms being classified as small, while the same size definition when applied to a different sector could lead to a different result. The first attempt to overcome this definition problem was by the Bolton Committee (1971) when they formulated an â€Å"economic† and a â€Å"statistical† definition. Under the economic definition, a firm is regarded as small if it meets the following three criteria: i. It has a relatively small share of their market place; ii. It is managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; iii. It is independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. The Committee also devised a â€Å"statistical† definition to be used in three main areas: a. Quantifying the size of the small firm sector and its contribution to GDP, employment, exports, etc.; b. Comparing the extent to which the small firm sector’s economic contribution has changed over time; c. Applying the statistical definition in a cross-country comparison of the small firms’ economic contribution. Thus, the Bolton Committee employed different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. 2.2.1 Criticism of the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"Economic† Definition of SMEs A number of weaknesses were identified with the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"economic† and `statistical’ definitions. First, the economic definition which states that a small business is managed by its owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formal management structure, is incompatible with its statistical definition of small manufacturing firms which could have up to 200 employees. As firm size increases, owners no longer make principal decisions but devolve responsibility to a team of managers. For example, it is unlikely for a firm with hundred employees to be managed in a personalized way, suggesting that the `economic’ and `statistical’ definitions are incompatible. Another shortcoming of the Bolton Committee’s economic definition is that it considers small firms to be operating in a perfectly competitive market. However, the idea of perfect competition may not apply here; many small firms occupy `niches’ and provide a highly specialized service or product in a geographically isolated area and do not perceive any clear competition (Wynarczyk et al, 1993; Storey, 1994). Alternatively, Wynarczyk et al (1993) identified the characteristics of the small firm other than size. They argued that there are three ways of differentiating between small and large firms. The small firm has to deal with: (a) Uncertainty associated with being a price taker; (b) Limited customer and product base; (c) Uncertainty associated with greater diversity of objectives as compared with large firms. As Storey (1994) stated, there are three key distinguishing features between large and small firms. Firstly, the greater external uncertainty of the environment in which the small firm operates and the greater internal consistency of its motivations and actions. Secondly, they have a different role in innovation. Small firms are able to produce something marginally different, in terms of product or service, which differs from the standardized product or service provided by large firms. A third area of distinction between small and large firms is the greater likelihood of evolution and change in the smaller firm; small firms that become large undergo a number of stage changes. 2.2.2 Criticism of the Bolton Committee’s â€Å"Statistical† Definition of SMEs (i) No single definition or criteria was used for â€Å"smallness†, (number of employees, turnover, ownership and assets were used instead) (ii) Three different upper limits of turnover were specified for the different sectors and two different upper limits were identified for number of employees. (iii) Comparing monetary units over time requires construction of index numbers to take account of price changes. Moreover, currency fluctuations make international comparison more difficult. (iv) The definition considered the small firm sector to be homogeneous; however, firms may grow from small to medium and in some cases to large. It was against this background that the European Commission (EC) coined the term `Small and Medium Enterprises (SME)’. The SME sector is made up of three components: (i) Firms with 0 to 9 employees – micro enterprises (ii) 10 to 99 employees – small enterprises (iii) 100 to 499 employees – medium enterprises. Thus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises, which employ less than 500 workers. In effect, the EC definitions are based solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of 100 employees as the small firm’s upper limit is more appropriate given the increase in productivity over the last two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME group is homogenous, that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises. However, the EC definition is too all embracing for a number of countries. Researchers would have to use definitions for small firms that are more appropriate to their particular `target’ group (an operational definition). It must be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile unless size is a factor that influences performance. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the impact of a credit programme o n a targeted group (also refer to Storey, 1994). 2.2.3 Alternative Definitions of SMEs World Bank since 1976 – Firms with fixed assets (excluding land) less than US$ 250,000 in value are Small Scale Enterprises. Grindle et al (1988) – Small scale enterprises are firms with less than or equal to 25 permanent members and with fixed assets (excludingland) worth up to US$ 50,000. USAID in the 1990s – Firms with less than 50 employees and at least half the output is sold (also refer to Mead, 1984). UNIDO’s Definition for Developing Countries: Large – firms with 100+ workers Medium – firms with 20 – 99 workers Small – firms with 5 – 19 workers Micro – firms with < 5 workers UNIDO’s Definition for Industrialized Countries: Large – firms with 500+ workers Medium – firms with 100 – 499 workers Small – firms with ≠¤99 workers From the various definitions above, it can be said that there is no unique definition for a small and medium scale enterprise thus, an operational definition is required. 2.2.4 Definitions SMEs in Ghana Small Scale enterprises have been variously defined, but the most commonly used criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise. In applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut off points used by the various official sources. As contained in its Industrial Statistics, The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) considers firms with less than 10 employees as Small Scale Enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as Medium and Large-Sized Enterprises. Ironically, The GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as Small and Medium Enterprises (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). An alternate criterion used in defining small and medium enterprises is the value of fixed assets in the organization. However, the National Board of Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both the `fixed asset and number of employees’ criteria. It defines a Small Scale Enterprise as one with not more than 9 workers, has plant and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not exceeding 10 million Cedis (US$ 9506, using 1994 exchange rate) (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC) on the other hand uses a 10 million Cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. A point of caution is that the process of valuing fixed assets in itself poses a problem. Secondly, the continuous depreciation in the exchange rate often makes such definitions out-dated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Steel and Webster (1990), Osei et al (1993) in defining Small Scale Enterprises in Ghana used an employment cut off point of 30 employees to indicate Small Scale Enterprises. The latter however dis-aggregated small scale enterprises into 3 categories: (i) micro -employing less than 6 people; (ii) very small, those employing 6-9 people; (iii) small -between 10 and 29 employees. 2.3 Why Small and Medium Scale Enterprises? The choice of small and medium scale enterprises within the industrial sector for this study is based on the following propositions (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). (a) Large Scale Industry (i) Have not been an engine of growth and a good provider of employment; (ii) Already receive enormous support through general trade, finance, tax policy and direct subsidies; (b) Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (i) Mobilize funds which otherwise would have been idle; (ii) Have been recognized as a seed-bed for indigenous entrepreneurship; (iii) Are labour intensive, employing more labour per unit of capital than large enterprises; (iv) Promote indigenous technological know-how; (vii) Are able to compete (but behind protective barriers); (viii) Use mainly local resources, thus have less foreign exchange requirements; (ix) Cater for the needs of the poor and; (x) Adapt easily to customer requirements (flexible specialization), (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). 2.4.0 The Role and Characteristics of SMEs 2.4.1 Role of SMEs in Developing Countries Small-scale rural and urban enterprises have been one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income in many developing countries. It is estimated that SMEs employ 22% of the adult population in developing countries (Daniels & Ngwira, 1992; Daniels & Fisseha, 1993; Fisseha, 1992; Fisseha & McPherson, 1991; Gallagher & Robson, 1995). However, some authors have contended that the job creating impact of small scale enterprises is a statistical flaw; it does not take into account offsetting factors that make the net impact more modest (Biggs, Grindle & Snodgrass, 1988). It is argued that increases in employment of Small and Medium Enterprises are not always associated with increases in productivity. Nevertheless, the important role performed by these enterprises cannot be overlooked. Small firms have some advantages over their large-scale competitors. They are able to adapt more easily to market conditions given their broadly skilled technologies. However, narrowing the analysis down to developing countries raises the following puzzle: Do small-scale enterprises have a dynamic economic role? Due to their flexible nature, SMEs are able to withstand adverse economic conditions. They are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore, have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier & Seibel, 1987; Liedholm & Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). Small-scale enterprises (SSEs) perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment. Since SMEs are labour intensive, they are more likely to succeed in smaller urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to the more even distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Because of their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, it is argued that small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of scarce resources, thus, facilitating long term economic growth. 2.4.2 Characteristics of SMEs in Ghana A distinguishing feature of SMEs from larger firms is that the latter have direct access to international and local capital markets whereas the former are excluded because of the higher intermediation costs of smaller projects. In addition, SMEs face the same fixed cost as Large Scale Enterprises (LSEs) in complying with regulations but have limited capacity to market products abroad. SMEs in Ghana can be categorised into urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into `organised’ and `unorganised’ enterprises. The organised ones tend to have paid employees with a registered office whereas the unorganised category is mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home and employ little or in some cases no salaried workers. They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups, individual artisans, women engaged in food production of local crops. The major activities within this sector include:- soap and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, textile and leather, village blacksmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical based products and mechanics ( Liedholm & Mead, 1987; Osei et al, 1993, World Bank, 1992). It is interesting to note that small-scale enterprises make better use of scarce resources than large-scale enterprises. Research in Ghana and many other countries have shown that capital productivity is often higher in SMEs than is the case with LSEs (Steel, 1977). The reason for this is not difficult to see, SMEs are labour intensive with very small amount of capital invested. Thus, they tend to witness high capital productivity, which is an economically sound investment. Thus, it has been argued that promoting the SME sector in developing countries will create more employment opportunities, lead to a more equitable distribution of income, and will ensure increased productivity with better technology (Steel & Webster, 1990). 2.5 SME Approaches There are several approaches or theories to entrepreneurship and small and medium enterprises. For the purpose of this study, the research team will dwell on three major theories. These include: venture opportunity, Agency Theory and Theory of Equity Funds 2.5.1 The Venture Opportunity The venture opportunity school of thought focuses on the opportunity aspect of venture development. The search for idea sources, the development of concepts; and the implementation of venture opportunities are the important interest areas for this school. Creativity and market awareness are viewed as essential. Additionally, according to this school of thought, developing the right idea at the right time for the right market niche is the key to entrepreneurial success. Major proponents include: N Krueger 1993, Long W. & McMullan 1984. Another development from this school of thought is what is described by McMullan (1984) as â€Å"corridor principle’’. This principle outlines that, giving prior attention to new pathways or opportunities as they arise and implementing the necessary steps for action are key factors in business development. The maxim that â€Å"preparation meeting opportunity, equals â€Å"luck† underlines this corridor principle. Proponents of this school of thought believe that proper preparation in the interdisciplinary business segments will enhance the ability to recognise good venture opportunities. Comparing the study with the above theory, the question that arises is: What are the factors or opportunities that have led to the proliferation of small and medium scale enterprises in Medina Township? Is it due to a particular market niche, creativity or market awareness? If so, then what socio-economic impact do they have on the people of Medina Township? 2.5.2 Agency Theory Agency theory deals with the people who own a business enterprise and all others who have interests in it, for example managers, banks, creditors, family members, and employees. The agency theory postulates that the day to day running of a business enterprise is carried out by managers as agents who have been engaged by the owners of the business as principals who are also known as shareholders. The theory is on the notion of the principle of ‘two-sided transactions’ which holds that any financial transactions involves two parties, both acting in their own best interests, but with different expectations. Major proponents of this theory include: Eisenhardt 1989, Emery et al.1991 and JH Davis – 1997. These Proponents of agency theory assume that agents will always have a personal interest which conflicts the interest of the principal. This is usually referred to as the Agency problem. 2.5.3 Theory of Equity Funds Equity is also known as owners’ equity, capital, or net worth. Costand et al (1990) suggests that ‘larger firms will use greater levels of debt financing than small firms. This implies that larger firms will rely relatively less on equity financing than do smaller firms’. According to the pecking order framework, the small enterprises have two problems when it comes to equity funding [McMahon et al. (1993, pp153)]: 1) Small enterprises usually do not have the option of issuing additional equity to the public. 2) Owner-managers are strongly averse to any dilution of their ownership interest and control. This way they are unlike the managers of large concerns who usually have only a limited degree of control and limited, if any, ownership interest, and are therefore prepared to recognize a broader range of funding options. Modern financial management is not the ultimate answer to every whim and caprice. However, it could be argued that there is some food for thought for SMEs concerning every concept. For example Access to Capital is really eye-opener for SMEs in Ghana to carve their way into sustaining their growth. 2.6 Policies for Promoting SMEs in Ghana Small-scale enterprise promotion in Ghana was not impressive in the 1960s. Dr. Nkrumah (President of the First Republic) in his modernization efforts emphasized state participation but did not encourage the domestic indigenous sector. The local entrepreneurship was seen as a potential political threat. To worsen the situation, the deterioration in the Balance of Payments in the 1980s and the overvaluation of the exchange rate led to reduce capacity utilization in the import dependent large-scale sector. Rising inflation and falling real wages also forced many formal sector employees into secondary self-employment in an attempt to earn a decent income. As the economy declined, large-scale manufacturing employment stagnated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). According to Steel and Webster (1991), small scale and self-employment grew by 2.9% per annum (ten times as many jobs as large scale employment) but their activities accounted for only a third of the value added. It was in the light of the above that the government of Ghana started promoting small-scale enterprises. They were viewed as the mechanism through which a transition from state-led economy to a private oriented developmental strategy could be achieved. Thus the SME sector’s role was re-defined to include the following (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000): (i) Assisting the state in reducing its involvement in direct production (ii) Absorbing labour from the state sector, given the relatively labour intensive nature of small scale enterprises, and; (iii) Developing indigenous entrepreneurial and managerial skills needed for sustained industrialization. 2.6.1 Government and Institutional Support to SMEs To enable the sector perform its role effectively, the following technical, institutional and financial supports were put in place by government. (i) Government Government, in an attempt to strengthen the response of the private sector to economic reforms undertook a number of measures in 1992. Prominent among them is the setting up of the Private Sector Advisory Group and the abolition of the Manufacturing Industries Act, 1971 (Act 356) that repealed a number of price control laws, and The Investment Code of 1985 (PNDC Law 116), which seeks to promote joint ventures between foreign and local investors. In addition to the above, a Legislative Instrument on Immigrant Quota, which grants automatic immigrant quota for investors, has been enacted. Besides, certain Technology Transfer Regulations have been introduced. Government also provided equipment leasing, an alternative and flexible source of long term financing of plant and equipment for enterprises that cannot afford their own. A Mutual Credit Guarantee Scheme was also set up for entrepreneurs who have inadequate or no collateral and has limited access to bank credit. To complement these efforts, a Rural Finance Project aimed at providing long-term credit to small-scale farmers and artisans was set up. In 1997, government proposed the establishment of an Export Development and Investment Fund (EDIF), operational under the Exim Guarantee Company Scheme of the Bank of Ghana. This was in aid of industrial and export services within the first quarter of 1998. To further improve the industrial sector, according to the 1998 Budget Statement, specific attention was to be given to the following industries for support in accessing the EDIF for rehabilitation and retooling: Textiles/Garments; Wood and Wood Processing; Food and Food Processing and Packaging. It was also highlighted that government would support industries with export potential to overcome any supply-based difficulty by accessing EDIF and rationalize the tariff regime in a bid to improve their export competitiveness. In addition, a special monitoring mechanism has been developed at the Ministry of Trade and Industries. In a bid to improve trade and investment, particularly in the industrial sector, trade and investment facilitating measures were put in place. Visas for all categories of investors and tourists were issued on arrival at the ports of entry while the Customs Excise and Preventive Service at the ports were made proactive, operating 7-days a week. The government continued supporting programmes aimed at skills training, registration and placement of job seekers, training and re-training of redeployees. This resulted in a 5% rise in enrolment in the various training institutes such as The National Vocational and Training Institute (NVTI), Opportunity Industrialization Centres (OIC), etc. As at the end of 1997, 65,830 out of 72,000 redeployees who were re-trained under master craftsmen have been provided with tools and have become self-employed. (ii) Institutions The idea of SME promotion has been in existence since 1970 though very little was done at the time. Key institutions were set up to assist SMEs and prominent among them was The Office of Business Promotion, now the present Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC). It aims at assisting Ghanaian businessmen to enter into fields where foreigners mainly operated but which became available to Ghanaians after the ‘Alliance Compliance Order’ in 1970. GEDC also had packages for strengthening small-scale industry in general, both technically and financially. The Economic Recovery Programme instituted in 1983 has broadened the institutional support for SMEs. The National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) has been established within the then Ministry of Industry, Science and Technology now (Ministry of Science and Technology) to address the needs of small businesses. The NBSSI established an Entrepreneurial Development Programme, intended to train and assist persons with entrepreneurial abilities into self-employment. In 1987, the industrial sector also witnessed the coming into operation of the Ghana Appropriate Technology Industrial Service (GRATIS). It was to supervise the operations of Intermediate Technology Transfer Units (ITTUs) in the country. GRATIS aims at upgrading small scale industrial concerns by transferring appropriate technology to small scale and informal industries at the grass root level. ITTUs in the regions are intended to develop the engineering abilities of small scale manufacturing and service industries engaged in vehicle repairs and other related trades. They are also to address the needs of non-engineering industries. So far, 6 ITTUs have been set up in Cape Coast, Ho, Kumasi, Sunyani, Tamale and Tema. (iii) Financial Assistance Access to credit has been one of the main bottlenecks to SME development. Most SMEs lack the necessary collateral to obtain bank loans. To address this issue, the Central Bank of Ghana has established a credit guarantee scheme to underwrite loans made by Commercial Banks to small-scale enterprises. Unfortunately, the scheme did not work out as expected. It was against this background that the Bank of Ghana obtained a US$ 28 million credit from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank for the establishment of a Fund for Small and Medium Enterprises Development (FUSMED). Under the Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Cost of Adjustment (PAMSCAD), a revolving fund of US$ 2 million was set aside to assist SMEs. This aspect is too scanty in the midst of the abundant information, especially with reference to Ghana. 2.7 Gender and Small Business Performance Until more recently gender differences in small business performance remained largely unaddressed by social scientists (Greene, Hart, Gatewood, Brush, & Carter, 2003). The majority of studies either disregarded gender as a variable of interest or excluded female subjects from their design (Du Rietz & Henrekson, 2000). However, it is generally accepted that male and female owner-managers behave differently and that these behavioral differences influence their performance (Brush, 1992), but these differences have been recognized but not fully explained (Brush & Hisrich 2000). A comparison of performance of male and female owner-managers in Java, Indonesia showed that female-owned businesses tend to be less oriented towards growth compared to male-owned businesses (Singh, Reynolds, & Muhammad, 2001). Boden & Nucci (2000) investigated start-ups in the retail and service industries and found that the mean survival rate for male owned businesses was four to six percent higher than for female owned businesses. Loscocco, Robinson, Hall & Allen (1991) in their study of small businesses in the New England region of the USA found that both sales volume and income levels were lower for female- than for male-owned businesses. In a longitudinal study of 298 small firms in the United Kingdom (UK), of which 67 were female owned, Johnson & Storey (1994) observed that whilst female owner-managers had more stable enterprises than their male counterparts, on average the sales turnover for female owners were lower than for male owners. Brush (1992) suggests that women perform less on quantitative financial measures such as jobs created, sales turnover and profitability because they pursue intrinsic goals such as independence, and the flexibility to combine family and work commitments rather than financial gain. In contrast to the above findings, Du Rietz and Henrekson (2000) reported that female-owned businesses were just as successful as their male counterparts when size and sector are controlled. In his study of small and medium firms in Australia, Watson (2002), after controlling for the effect of industry sector, age of the business, and the number of days of operation, also reported no significant differences in performance between the male- controlled and female-controlled firms.

Business Opportunity Identification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Opportunity Identification - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that  innovation forms the basis of any business opportunity. There are various factors that need to be analyzed before implementing an innovative idea. UK market is the main focus in this study due to its economic stability. Any new business start up should encompass such product or services that can cater hidden customer demand. Affordability or purchasing power is another aspect that plays a vital role while designing a new business plan. The business opportunity which has been identified is in the wrist watch sector. Watches are highly in demand in consumer market and there is more inclination towards branded items. Branded watches are usually preferred by customers due to its unique designs that are inimitable. In this segment there lies high opportunity in context of offering unique design wrist watches to upper middle and lower middle segment.This report outlines that the highly competitive UK market has different segments and middle income g roup shall initiate required profit margins for the retail company. Wrist watches are mostly preferred by adults and youth, and this is the business opportunity for the retail company to be launched.  An entrepreneur starting a new business needs to take into consideration wide array of factors. These factors are related to financial and operational aspects of the new start up business. Financial factor is a major component during designing a new business.

Socially constructed (i.e. ideologies and mindsets) nature of the Essay

Socially constructed (i.e. ideologies and mindsets) nature of the current economic recession - Essay Example One of the biggest problems the U.K. economy is facing is the rise in the unemployment rate. The current unemployment rate of the United Kingdom is 7.9%. The unemployment epidemic is occurring throughout the entire world. There are approximately 115 nations that have an unemployment rate that is as high or worst than the United Kingdom with Zimbabwe being the worst victim with an astronomical unemployment rate of 95% (Cia, 2011). Zimbabwe is also facing hyperinflation. When people don’t have a job there are not able to cover their living expenses. There are other problems the British economy is facing. There are millions of British people living in extreme poverty. For instance the amount of homeless people is huge. There are approximately 400,000 people in the United Kingdom that do not have a roof over their heads. Extreme poverty is not just occurring in emerging economies. It is also a reality of a developed nation such as the United Kingdom. These figures do not make sens e to me since the gross domestic product per capita in the United Kingdom is one of the highest in the world at ?22,241 (CultureGrams, 2011). The government has not done an adequate job to ensure British wealth is distributed more evenly. The government should raise the tax rates to 50% for any person that has an income above ?1,000,000 a year; also people who make between ?200,000 and ?999,999 should pay a higher rate of between 40-45%. The added revenues should be used to help out the poor people in the United Kingdom. The world has become a harsher place to live for underdeveloped countries since the global recession. More than half the world’s population is living with a daily income of ?1.60. The global recession hurt the developed countries which caused a chain reaction that lowered the donation money and other economic assistance that underdeveloped countries used to receive from the private citizens and governmental institutions of developed countries around the world . The United Kingdom is also facing other economic issues that are hurting the quality of life of the population. The prices of basic need items such as food and medicine are on the rise. When British citizens go to the supermarket or grocery stores they are paying more money to buy vegetables, milk, bread, and meats among other food products. The poor and lower middle class in the United Kingdom are paying the consequences of food inflation. The rise in food prices has affected the global population severely. Things have gotten so bad that nearly 25,000 people are dying everyday of hunger and hunger related causes (Poverty, 2011). The children are the biggest victims of this epidemic since there is nearly one billion children globally that are suffering from malnutrition. Another sector that is facing major inflationary forces is healthcare. The annual cost of healthcare per capita in the United Kingdom is ?1483. The added money that the government is spending in healthcare cost du e to inflation could be used more effectively to help the poor people living in the United Kingdom A factor that is lowering the quality of life of British people is the rising cost of fuel. Gasoline is necessary to be able commute to work and to get from one place to another. The price of gasoline has gone down a little in 2011, but it is still way too expensive. The United Nations should impose

Integration plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Integration plan - Essay Example Organizational theory is useful when applied to intricate and complicated situations with organizations and in finding creative and inventive ways to deal with those problems. Some phenomena are too complex to be precisely specified through the use of a mathematical formula because human behavior is also unpredictable. In such cases, metaphors, analogies or theories may be more appropriate and also allow for the exercise of multiple perspectives. Organizational theories are like frames through which organizational aspects and culture can be viewed, allowing practitioners to view events occurring within an abstract context and thereby evaluate them objectively (Hatch, 1997). It also allows practitioners to approach problems with a thorough underlying understanding of organizational function and design and from multiple perspectives in order to successfully achieve organizational goals, create successful marketing trends or control and monitor performance through appropriate structuring and designing of organizational processes. Ans 2: In my own life, my approach to problems is likely to be different after studying organizational theories and designs. This study has added to my existing knowledge on concepts which is likely to help me analyze future experiences in the light of those concepts. The knowledge of organizational theory is also likely to help me discover the connecting links between events where I might not otherwise have seen a relation. This may help to highlight hidden aspects of a problem and provide me the opportunity to view the situation in fresh ways to develop innovative solutions. When my personal experiences are combined with my theoretical knowledge of concepts obtained from organizational theory, it is likely to enhance my understanding of organizations and help me to develop effective solutions. Due to the abstract element present in organizational theory, it

Clouds Seeding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Clouds Seeding - Essay Example This paper takes a closer look at the concept of cloud seeding, the types, uses, and impact on the environment (Keyes 3). The main objective of cloud seeding is to cause enhance the precipitation through rain and snow and reduce the formation of hail and fog. This technology initially launched to research on and to monitor the climatic conditions of various regions in the world has been widely adopted by world’s leading economies with the main objective of negating the effects of extreme weather conditions. Under normal circumstances, harsh weather conditions are mostly experienced in the temperate countries especially during the winter and summer (Keyes 3). Although several methods of cloud seeding exist, the most common categories are the aerial cloud seeding and ground-based cloud seeding. Aerial cloud seeding involves the use of light aircrafts in the modification of weather at a considerable height from the ground. Ground-based cloud seeding on the other hand, entails the launching of intended substances into the earth’s atmosphere to carry out the same purpose. Irrespective of the procedure used to conduct cloud seeding, the underpinning idea is the same as it is the same process conducted in different procedures. Since the essence of cloud seeding is to promote the precipitation of condensed cloud, the methodology involves the injection of certain substances or chemicals into the clouds with the most commonly used being dry ice and silver iodide (Keyes 3). In some cases, the use of propane has proved successful although scholars from certain quarters questioned its efficiency. Since for successful could seeding to take pla ce there has to be super cooled water, the use of silver iodide has solved the problem through its ability to stimulate freezing nucleation because it is crystalline in nature. Research shows that dry ice and propane perform better than silver iodide as far

Micro project 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Micro project 5 - Essay Example Example of the good that has positive externnility is the education service. The benefit it has provided to the users has more social benefits than the private benefits. Private benefits in this case will be the advantages that an individual user gets whereas public benefit is what the society gain due to increasing rate of literacy and overall growth. Example of de-merit goods, which posses negative externality can be alcohol or cigarettes. These kinds of products reduce the ‘social marginal benefit of consumption’ and government usually taxed those products (Tutor 2 U, n.d.). 2. A. If Bart can charge only one price then he should charge $7 as only this way he can sale the maximum meal and can earn maximum revenue. Charging more than it would lead to loosing of one meal. The combination of charges and revenues can be presented with the help of one table. It has been mentioned that marginal cost of providing a meal is constant at $5. Therefore, producer’s surplus will be $2 ($7 - $5). Consumer surplus will be different for all the customers. Consumer surplus for Bob, Sue and Katie will be $0, $1 and $8 respectively. 2. B. Price discrimination is not possible in such case. For price discrimination, it is necessary to know the type of customer and also the amount of money. Only then, the shopkeeper can charge different price to the different customer. In that case, Bart will charge $7 from the group or from all of them. It is because, Bart knows that one of them has $7 and if he will charge more than that then he would loose one meal. Charging $7, he is able to earn revenue of $21 and that is the maximum revenue he can earn. 2. C. Being perfectly price discriminate, Bart should charge three different prices from three of them. For Bob, price should be $7 as it is the highest amount he can pay. Thus, Bart can gain $2 and he would

Improving Organisational Performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

Improving Organisational Performance - Essay Example Objective Setting 7 Reviewing What and How 8 Overall Performance Rating and Rewarding basis on the appraisal 8 Challenges and Negative effects of Performance Management System 9 Balanced Proposals 10 Implications for Line Managers 11 Conclusion 12 References 14 Appendix 16 Introduction Performance management is a systematic progress that improves the performance of an organization by the improvement of individuals’ skills and effectiveness (Deb, 2009, p.36). Moreover, it increases the efficiency of team and helps to achieve the business and organizational objectives. Performance is explained apparently, which is the achievement of qualified objectives. The proper implementation and practices helps the employee of the organization to achieve the personal as well as organizational goal. The other important aspect of performance management of organizations is it helps to maintain the goal significantly (Caldwell, 2002, p.19). Performance management is one of the important elements of organization control system and Human Resource Management (Pravin, 2007, P.583). Performance management helps to provoke organizational and employee development by its methods. It also covers the strategic development by several modifications through its methods. Moreover, it facilitates indirect control of employees be setting up a clear target (Bhatia, 2003, p. 39). In order to achieve the objective of the study, Tesco and Sainsbury the two leading retail organizations of UK has been selected. They study will critically evaluate the Performance management in Tesco and Sainsbury. Moreover, the study will explore the challenges that have been encountered by the use of performance management in these two leading retail chains in UK. The study will develop a balanced proposal in order to overcome the challenges. The implications for line managers are also have examined by this study. Finally the study ends with a conclusion. Ev aluation of High Performance Work and Performance Management System in Tesco Tesco organization structure is kind of a bureaucratic structure as authority and power flows from the top level to bottom level in the organization. This equilibrium has the similarity in the performance management system and reward structure. In Tesco, the top management employees earn more reward comparing to the employees who exists in low level of the organization. However, the overall reward and performance management system and the Performance Steering Wheel is the key reason of the organization success story of Tesco (Jolly, 2009, p. 397). Customer, Community, Employees, Operations and Finance are the major elements of the Tesco’s performance steering wheel (Figure 1). From this steering wheel the employee’s aspect has been discussed in this study in order to evaluate the performance management framework of Tesco (Barrow, 2011, p. 93). Performance Management Framework Sir Terry Leahy i s the chief executive of Tesco, who is supremely responsible for the growth of organization. He had developed a clear map, direction and a compass in order to attain a strategic growth. The management team of Tesco has decided to develop and structure a performance management framework in order to develop a strategic goal of the organization. The performance management framework has created several key performance indicators in Tesco. The major purpose of this approach is to steer Tesco towards success. Performance steering wheel was developed by Tesco in the year 2009 in order to fulfil the organization as well as individual objectives (Taylor and Nichols, 2010, p.11). It has created the groth opportunities for the employees. The adoption of this framework has made the jobs interesting for the

Small Group Written Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Small Group Written Assignment - Essay Example This was evident with the incident at the loading dock where two employees (Ed Williams and Buddy Jones) were engaged in heavy altercation over the type of music that should played on the loading dock sound systems while hurling racial slur at each other. The new Operations Manager Bob Jackson must assert leadership on the distribution center of Hayward Healthcare Systems to deter and discourage belligerent and hostile attitude of employees. It is strongly advised that Mr. Bob Jackson must intervene when conflict arises in the distribution center because it is his area of responsibility. The employees in the floor being highly aggressive can only respect a strong leadership which Mr. Bob Jackson must exercise. A policy also needs to be draft and implemented that will bring about the desired behavior in the distribution center. This will include but not limited to, conflict handling and resolution, decorum on music (i.e. no more music to be played on the loading dock sound system but employees are allowed to use headsets). Conflict, fistfights must also be deterred by a heavy penalty such as suspension that could lead to termination from the company. Implement a new hiring policy that will screen the background of the applicants where management can participate in the selection process. Promotion and appointment to positions of responsibility must be done according to merit and this must expressed in a policy. This policy must also be communicated properly to the employees to promote professionalism and to convey policy changes in the management. The company must also implement a zero tolerance policy against racial slur because it is not only unhealthy on the work floor but could also invite discrimination charges which are costly in terms of litigation and settlement not to mention its cost on the company’s image of being implicated in a discrimination charge. Foster

Critically discuss the proposition; ''organisational culture cannot be Essay

Critically discuss the proposition; ''organisational culture cannot be managed'' - Essay Example The move raises the question of how easy it is to manage or to change organisational cultures. There is widespread criticism of the common culture management approaches by various scholars; in recent studies, it is evidenced that managers are continually engaging themselves in planned cultural interventions (Griffin & Moorhead 2011). Their main concerns are that organisational cultures determine the image and the performances of organisations and failure to address the issue would signify failure in organisational goals. The studies indicate that managing organisational cultures is the most common and popular form of managerial interventions. Organisational atmospheres usually change and organisational cultures evolve with time and generations in an organisation (Alvesson, 2002). Organisations emerge because of a group of people having a common goal of working together to achieve a common goal. For a single person, the tasks would be challenging or impossible. The process it takes for organisational culture formation starts creation of small groups of individuals with a common idea or notion in organisational operations. These finally generate long-lasting organisational cultures that pass from one generation to another. In the past two decades, the issues of organisational culture have had much attention especially in the health sector. The Health sector is a critical area where cultures determine various aspects in the services and operations (Scott et al., 2003). In the UK, for example, the central governments have been actively promoting structural change in the UK National Health Services (NHS). It is in an effort to secure sufficient gains in the health care performance (Davies et al., 2000). The main goal of the central government policies lies on the development of cultural changes in view of structural change.

Adderalls Effects on the Body Essay Example for Free

Adderalls Effects on the Body Essay Adderall is an amphetamine based stimulant that targets your frontal lobe to increase productivity in cognitive thinking and learning. This drug was invented in 1986 and introduced into the market of prescription drugs four years later. There has been critical research and deep cross examination of the effects and effectiveness of this drug. This is an extremely sensitive topic for everyone all the way from the users to the top of the corporations that are marketing the drug to our youth including children as young as three years old. Studies show that such a thought enhancing drug should not be distributed to children because it may seriously alter a young developing nervous system in negative ways. Even though many concerns have been raised by pediatricians and nutritionists the big pharmaceutical companies accept the risk and encourage children to continue consuming this drug. This is a big problem because there is so much contradiction surrounding this drug and the caution flags are being ignored. A research analyst named Alex Chen performed in depth research into the effects of Adderall on frontal lobe activity and behavior alteration. See more: Strategic Management Process Essay Through his research, as shown in the article, he uses video games as an example. If someone very interested in any type of video game and is given Adderall, they would have little interest in playing the game that they normally would indulge themselves in and be much more attentive to abstract critical thought. On the other hand, if you give the same dose to a person who had little interest in video games they would show an abnormal amount of interest in the activity. This takes place when amphetamines are stimulating the brain. People that do not have ADD or ADHD tend to get the opposite effect of the drug because their brains are producing enough dopamine to maintain consistent attention and awareness without stimulation from the prescription. Amphetamines work by stimulating your inhibitory area in your hypothalamus. This region of the mid-brain has two areas. One side of the midbrain inhibits hunger and the other part stimulates it. Seeing that these two areas are stimulated would create the anticipated effect. The midbrain sends signals to the whole body that hunger is not a priority, this explains why there is never an urge to eat and food does not satisfy normally. Hunger, or the lack there of, is a huge issue when taking Adderall as a daily prescription. Doctors that prescribe this drug always lay heavy caution on the fact that this drug will virtually cut off your ability to be hungry. So when taking the drug for the first couple months you are required to take two day breaks every three days to allow your body to catch up. Exploring the long-term effects of Adderall it is difficult. Extensive long term research does not exist because there has not been a sufficient time period to make definite observations about long term effects. The drug has been out for less than 30 years so an entire generation cannot be examined. With all stimulants there are possible cardiac effects. Amphetamines act as a stimulant, increasing heart pressure and repetitions. Effects depend heavily on your potential for heart diseases, and whether the drug is being abused. It is very possible that people with ADD and ADHD are much more likely to acquire neurotoxicity because their receptors absorb significantly more than the receptors of those without Attention Deficit Disorder. This is the basis for long-term amphetamine neurotoxicity. Other serious long term side effects of Adderall include elevated blood pressure, stroke, heart attack, and sudden death. This drug has been recognized around the world by doctors and nutritionists as a very harmful and depleting drug. To this day, if you presented this information to your doctor they would most likely suggest that you keep taking the drug every day. Adderall is prescribed in 5 mg, up to 20 mg and amounts vary depending on the severity of the ADD or ADHD. Since Adderall stimulates your brain it is easy to become dependent upon this drug. â€Å"Adderall is basically a cocktail of various amphetamine stimulants and is often referred to as â€Å"prescription speed†. Because it is similar in makeup to illegal methamphetamines, it is highly addictive (Adams). †Over time like any other drug your body will build a resistance to it, making it necessary to either up your dosage or take it more often. This process is the stairway through which progression and can be horrifying to a erson who is prescribed Adderall and becomes dependent on the drug to be able to focus and retain information. On the other hand, Adderall is used by many people throughout the world and is a very useful and helpful drug to those who need it. ADD and ADHD are hyperactive disorders that make it nearly impossible to focus and pay attention in a school/university environment. In this case Adderall is a savior to most people and if used without abuse it can be controlled to a healthy, moderate amount. Adderall allows the user to become more focused, be calm, and suppresses activities that would otherwise hinder one’s ability to study. Necessities like drinking, eating, and sleeping are some of these activities that are overlooked once under the influence of Adderall. Depression is an area where Adderall is very effective as it increases activity in your frontal lobe, which increases brain activity and overall cognition. Working out on Adderall can be a fatal and very damaging thing to do to your body. It is a stimulant, which by definition induces temporary improvements in either mental or physical function. Stimulants slow your heart and increase brain function by a substantial amount. Since your heart has to increase its beats per minute when working out to get enough oxygen to your body, your heart can become strained and cause a heart attack, heart palpitations or sudden death if not preformed cautiously. The deeper I look into the side effects of this drug the more potentially fatal issues I discover. Overall this drug seems to be very dangerous but extremely beneficial to those who need it and can use it effectively without abusing it.

Reflective Independent Learning Essay Example for Free

Reflective Independent Learning Essay 1. A critical part of being an independent learner is reflecting on your learning. Go to the following link from the University of Hull and learn more on how to be a reflective learner: University of Hawaii Reflective Learning 2. Being an independent learner is a guiding principle for university learning and success. Clearly, learning independently is a complex activity that involves many things but crucially it requires the ability to take responsibility for and to reflect on your learning so that you can achieve the goals that you set for yourself. Find out more about what it means to be an independent learner and how you can improve in this area by going to the following link and reading this article from Hull University: Study Advice 1. Write a short paragraph answering the following questions: a) Describe several things that you have done or are doing at university that would be defined as independent learning. b) Being motivated, confident and reflective were highlighted in the article as key to independent learning. How do you rate yourself in these areas? c) Referring to the articles above, describe how you can improve your independent learning. One of the important things that I use and I define as independent learning is portfolios. I use them not only for all my classes but also for everything I take a picture of or draw or write or even tutorials that shows how to make things. I consider that very important because it helps me to remember everything I did and I liked, so every time I take my portfolio and browse it, I remember all the good and positive things I did and that make me happy. In my opinion, motivation, confidence, and reflection are the fundamental keys to be an efficient independent learner because they give energy that make you feel that you want to do something that you like. And when you do something you like it gives you motivation and confidence. It‘s a kind of cycle that never ends. And personally I think those three elements are what keep artists doing the good work. In my case I use normal portfolios, but the negative thing about that is that a certain time I will end up having many portfolios which will take a lot of space.

Vulnerable Subjects Research

Vulnerable Subjects Research PROTECTION OF VULNERABLE SUBJECTS IN CLINICAL TRIALS BACKGROUND Aim: To throw light on the state of vulnerable subjects in Clinical Research. Objective: To understand current provisions and legislations available to protect the rights of vulnerable subjects with special emphasis on plight of sex workers enrolled in anti-HIV trials. VULNERABLE SUBJECTS IN CLINICAL RESEARCH Individuals who are comparatively or entirely inept of defending their own wellbeing are termed as vulnerable research participants. When study includes such subjects additional care has to be taken to protect their rights. It is the investigator and his research team’s responsibility to ensure that these subjects are not exploited in the name of research. The study design team, sponsor, investigator must be aware of the special requirements needed for vulnerable subjects and they should develop the study protocol, informed consent form and the confidentiality agreement keeping the vulnerable subjects’ needs in mind. The different types of vulnerable subjects included in clinical trials are classified on basis of their vulnerability. Some examples are as follows: 1. Cognitive and Communicative vulnerability: This includes children and adolescents. Patient’s suffering from mental retardation, dementia and other kinds of mental illness. Enrollment of people with educational deficits and unfamiliarity with language. Stressful emergency: conditions that do not permit otherwise capable adults to implement their capabilities efficiently. 2. Juridical or institutional vulnerability: Person who is under the official authority of others (egs. Parents, guardians, warders, officers and judges) who may have their own benefits in whether the individual agrees to enroll in the study. 3. Deferential vulnerability: Influence of other people in subjects life, determine their decision to enter the trial. Existence of an informal hierarchy (egs. Relatives, friends, masters, physician) 4. Medical vulnerability: Prospective patients who have a severe medical condition, for which there are no existing efficient or satisfactory regular cure (examples: very aggressive and malignant forms of cancer, last stage AIDS and some uncommon ailments) owing to their unusual medically tricky state, misuse of these patients throughout their hope for remission or improvement is not unusual. 5. Economic vulnerability: Prospective subjects with low economic background may join trial with hope of getting income, housing and healthcare facilities. Payment for participation or free access to healthcare services might constitute unfair inducements to enroll through exploitation of these subjects. 6. Infrastructural vulnerability: Patient is tempted to enroll in trials, as they pre-suppose the availability to them of resources or facilities (egs. a rapid communication system, a reliable dietary intake, skilled healthcare professionals) 7. Social vulnerability: Refers to individuals belonging to undervalued social groups or communities.(sex workers)[R. Colombo, The Most Vulnerable Subjects Of Biomedical Research IX General Assembly PAV – publications] EXPLOITATION OF VULNERABLE SUBJECTS THROUGH HISTORY Exploitation was rampant in the absence of regulations, laws, guidelines and codes. Escalating physician to god-like position with immense faith in them and failure to recognize vulnerable subjects has resulted in horrific incidents in history of research. These major mishaps have convinced the medical fraternity the need for developing ethical guidelines and code for research specifically for the vulnerable populations. The Nuremberg trial The 20th century will always be remembered due to the shocking and upsetting experimentation performed by Nazi doctors. During the World War II, the Nazi physicians took advantage of the prisoners of war; they carried out experiments unparalleled in their range and the level of anguish and harm. Appalling studies such as injecting the poor prisoners with gasoline and live viruses, immersing people in ice water, and forcing them to ingest poisons have gone down in the history books as the most inhuman experiments. The physicians in order to satisfy their scientific curiosity have performed these experiments which were of no use to the participants. These experiments usually resulted in the death of the participants. After the war ended, there was a huge public outburst against these experiments and 23 physicians were indicted at Nuremberg for their willing participation in these experiments. Sixteen were found guilty and sentenced while seven were hanged to death. This resulted in the origin of the Nuremberg Code, which made informed consent mandatory. The Willowbrook study The Nuremberg Code unfortunately did not put to end unethical research as not every researcher honored the Code. The three year long Willowbrook study is another example where vulnerable patients were exploited. Willowbrook State School, an institution for mentally defective children were intentionally infect with the hepatitis virus, by being fed stools from infected persons or later by being injecting with purified virus preparations, to observe the natural history of this disease and then to test the effects o gamma globulin in preventing the disease. Researchers defended the deliberate infection of these children by stating that the bulk of them acquired the infection in any case while at Willowbrook, and possibly it would be better for them to be infected under restricted research settings. What was worse was that during the course of these studies, new inmates were admitted only if they agreed to participate in the hepatitis program! There was obviously no full disclosure ad clearly coercion and undue pressure was used to enroll vulnerable subjects like children and mentally challenged. Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study At the other end of life’s spectrum, came the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study where live cancer cells were infused into continually ailing and incapacitated patients. These patients had been told that they were getting a skin examination. The patients were provided oral information about the test but no consent was documented. Syphilis study The most notorious example of prolonged infringement of human rights of a vulnerable faction of research participants was the long-term study of black males performed at Tuskegee by the United States Public Health Service. Initiated in the 1930s to examine the natural history of untreated syphilis, continuing until 1972, this study recruited more than 400 black men suffering from syphilis. These participants were recruited without informed consent and were mislead that a few of the measures taken in the interest of research were essentially â€Å"special complimentary treatment†. Although along the way antibiotics become available, these were not given to the patients and the study resulted in 28 deaths, 100 cases of disability, and 19 cases of congenital syphilis. The Belmont report published by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research on April 18, 1979 was one of the outcomes of the public outcry that resulted when the story of the Tuskegee study broke.[Urmila Thatte, Etical issues in clinical Research chapter 4, of Basic principles of clinical research and methodology by S K Gupta] Guidelines for ethical conduct of research in human subjects that have came into picture: Nuremberg Code, 1947 Declaration of Helsinki, 1964 The Belmont Report, 1979 International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects, 1982, 1993, 2002 The Ethics of Research related to Healthcare in Developing Countries, Nuffield council, 2002 Indian council for Medical Research Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research on Human subjects SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHILDREN Regulations that protect children, so as to prevent their exploitation are: OHRP 45 CFR 46 Subpart D FDA 21 CFR 50 Subpart D Special Considerations for Children are: Research that involves no more than minimal risk can be approved with adequate provisions for obtaining the assent of the child and permission from their parents/guardians. 45 CFR 46.404 The combination of assent by the minor subject and permission (consent) from the parents is deemed appropriate to enroll the child subject in the trial. In case of life threatening events only consent from parents would suffice, as there is expectation of direct benefit. However the child must be given full explanation of the trial. If the research presents an opening to comprehend, avoid or lessen a grave predicament affecting the health or welfare of children, but does NOT provide direct benefit to the subject or societal (indirect) benefit, than the research cannot be approved by the IRB unless HHS Secretary Approval is granted. 45 CFR 46.407 . Extremely rare- both Parent consent + child assent. When parents of the child are deceased, unknown or incompetent then the legal guardian must give is consent. Step parents, Grandparents, Adult siblings, adult Aunts or Uncles may not consent a child to research. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR WOMEN Regulations that protect women, so as to prevent their exploitation are: OHRP 45 CFR 46 Subpart B Research studies involving pregnant women and fetuses must satisfy the following requirements to obtain IRB approval: Preclinical studies have been conducted, including studies on pregnant animals; clinical studies, that include non-pregnant women and provide data for assessing potential risks to pregnant women and fetuses 46.204(a) Risk to fetus is caused solely by interventions or procedures that hold prospect of direct benefit for the woman or the fetus or, 46.204(b) If no benefit, risk to the fetus is not greater than minimal and the research develops important biomedical knowledge not obtainable by any other means. 46.204(b) SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PRISONERS The voluntary choice of the prisoners must not influenced by any potential advantages entailed to them due to the study, which outweighs the risks. For example, Parole decisions must not be affected for prisoners participating in the trial. The study is ethical, when the risk of participation is acceptable even to a non prisoner subject. Selections of subjects are carried out in a fair manner. When spoilt for choice, randomization techniques must be used. If necessary, adequate follow-up care must be provided to the volunteers. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DECISIONALLY IMPAIRED A combination of assent from the subject and permission from the concerned legal authorities constitute for the informed consent. The risk of participation would be agreeable to general volunteers too. Selection is fair and unbiased Adequate follow up is provided SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SEX WORKERS Enrolling Sex workers in HIV vaccine trials that are ethical, valid and are not exploitative is a challenge that must be faced. Due to their nature of work, they require additional support. Sex workers are generally from the downtrodden community, they are illiterate and understanding the language in the informed consent is a major issue for them. Hence the informed consent must be in the local language and should be easily understood. The informed-consent must be prepared in such a way that it is in consultation with the community advisory and counsel board to ensure social sensitivity. Confidentiality is an important issue. These women may face physical abuse and abandonment from their clients, if they enter these trials. Supportive counseling should be provided before, during and after the test. Sex workers must not only be given male condoms but along with that they should be provided with female condoms. Proper guidance on safe sex must be dispensed. Clinical trial study team should increase awareness among the sex workers about AIDS. They should provide proper guidance to them, for prevention. Sex workers should be treated equally as general women would have been treated in a clinical trials. Study team should be sensitive towards them and not discriminate and look down upon them. CASE STUDY Health Minister, Urbain Olangnena Awono of the Cameroon government has decided that they may have to put a stop to the Tenofovir trials taking place in the port city of Douala due to various allegations by AIDS activists. The health minister had scheduled an audit for the same. The Tenofovir trial began in September 2004, Tenofovir is a established drug used for treatment of AIDS, manufactured by Gilead pharmaceuticals U.S. This trial was to determine whether Tenofovir can work as a prophylactic to prevent AIDS. The study recruited 400 sex workers free of infection. Half the women took a Tenofovir pill daily and the other half took a placebo. The study is conducted by Family Health and Insurance (FHI) with the support of U.S $ 6.5 million dollars from Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. AIDS activists have demanded that this study be completely suspended on ethical grounds. They have said that the volunteers are vulnerable subjects and their rights have been exploited. Activists claim that the subjects have received inadequate counseling and healthcare. They have brought to notice that the sex workers are not fully informed about the risks involved in the trial. They also argue that the Study team has not promised to guarantee free healthcare if the workers become infected, which ideally every volunteer must receive. The FHI have counter attacked and cleared their stand by assuring that free medical checkups and tests have been carried out. Various tests like gynecological, medical care, HIV, pregnancy have been carried out for free. However various Activists have disregarded this claim and said that these are all false promises and haven’t been materialized. Another important issue that has been brought to notice was that, most of these sex workers were illiterate didn’t understand English and very little French, in spite of that the informed consent form were in English. However later it seen that the ICF shown to PlusNews was in French. The study team had provided 96 male condoms to sex workers. However imparting knowledge to prevent the infection of disease would be like a conflict of interest for the researchers. As the trial would be a success only if the women were exposed, become infected. The sex workers are misinformed and they feel that by taking this pill they are now vaccinated against the disease. In order to get their point across, so that the concerned authority would wake up to this injustice, AIDS activists in Paris staged a demonstration in front of the Cameroonian embassy in Paris. This demonstration got full coverage on the French T.V. This resulted in a public outcry against the trials. CRITIQUE The Tenofovir trial case study is an excellent example highlighting the profound impact media can have on the progress of the trial. The complete discontinuations of the trials prove that activists and non- governmental organizations with the help of the media can bring about change. These same activists are also involved in promoting research to combat the disease, but they can hinder the progress too. Hence researchers must be more aware about the ethical issues surrounding enrollment of sex workers. Engaging in discussion and consulting with the participant’s community before the trial begins can avoid such media spectacle. The case study rightly brings to one’s notice that lack of consultation with the support groups and community network was the biggest error on the part of the research team. Extensive discussion with community networks and a good flow of communication would bridge the gap and increase the trust of sex workers in the trials. The activists have rightly questioned why no subjects from general population have been enrolled to test safety of the drug. They have expressed concern and raised another important issue that the same trial would have provided women from Europe and U.S better benefits and adequate healthcare. The burning issue against this trial has been that since the primary outcome is HIV infection, researchers will provide inadequatecounseling to prevent infection. Since there exits a conflict of interest, sex workers will not be encouraged to have safe sex. Another important drawback of the trial has been its failure to provide sex workers with female condoms. They were provided with male condoms but negotiating for the same with their clients does not go down well with their trade. It is shocking that the sex workers were completely ignorant about the drug. They were misguided that the drug is a vaccine for AIDS, which made them more careless and prone to the disease. On the other hand, Tenofovir trials aimed at providing a prophylactic for AIDS, which would be a major breakthrough in combating this deadly disease and would definitely be of great benefit to the sex workers. Such uncontrolled and extreme protest has led to the complete discontinuation of the trial which in turn is bad news for the sex workers. The sponsor company had also promised to market this drug in Cameroon for much reduced prices. The validity of the media reports is doubtful as all the allegations made against the research team have been without any evidence. Activists instead of creating media backlash against the trial should have engaged in constructive dialogue with the research team stating their demands. CONCLUSION Clinical research has given millions of patients’ worldwide assurity that the medicine they purchase and consume, has been completely validated for its safety and efficacy. It ensures that these patients worldwide are getting the best medicine with utmost safety parameters. Investigators along with their research team bear the ultimate responsibility for their work with human subjects. They have the privilege of using human subject to advance scientific research, in turn society expects that investigators will show respect for their research subjects. Unfortunately as history has shown some scientists still continue to value their quest for knowledge and potential for personal fame and financial gain more highly then respect for basic human rights. Hence, various guidelines, regulations, codes and law have come into picture to protect the human subject. Special care and provisions must be made for subjects who are shunned from society. Sex workers live on the fringe of society and can rarely ask for their rights or support from public. In the interest of general health, to conduct trials for AIDS, this section of society must not be used as mere guinea pigs. Particular guidelines and ethical code of conduct for researchers must be drawn in order to protect these oppressed subjects. Providing them information on AIDS is not enough, they must be given free health care and female condoms. They need compassion and justice from us. REFERENCES Deanna Kerrigan et al, Environmental structural factors significantly associated with consistent condom use among female sex workers in the Dominican Republic, AIDS 2003 17:415-423 , Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Arnaud L Fontanet et al, Protection against sexually transmitted diseases by granting sex workers in Thailand the choice of using the male or female condom: results from a randomized controlled trial, AIDS 1998, 12: 1851-1859, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Edward Mills et al, Media reporting of Tenofovir trials in Cambodia and Cameroon, 24 August 2005, BMC International Health and Human Rights. Edward J Mills and Sonal Singh, Health, human rights and the conduct of clinical research within oppressed populations, Globalization and health 2007, 3:10, BioMed Central Ltd. Peter H. Kilmarx et al, Protection of Human Subjects’ Rights HIV- preventive clinical trials in Africa and Asia: Experiences and Recommendations, AIDS 2001, 15 (suppl 5) : S73-S79, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins Geeta Yadav et al, Associations of sexual risk taking among Kenyan female sex workers after enrollment in an HIV – 1 prevention trial, J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2005; 38:329-334, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins Gielen AC, Fogarty L, OCampo P, Anderson J, Keller J, et al, Women living with HIV: Disclosure, violence, and social support, 2000, J Urban Health 77:480–491 R. Colombo, The Most Vulnerable Subjects Of Biomedical Research IX General Assembly PAV – publications. Urmila Thatte, Ethical issues in clinical Research chapter 4, of Basic principles of clinical research and methodology by S K Gupta Cynthia McGuire Dunn and Gary L. Chadwick, Protecting study volunteers in research, Third edition. Thomson Centerwatch. Ezekiel J. Emanuel, MD, PhD; David Wendler, PhD; Christine Grady, PhD, What Makes Clinical Research Ethical? , JAMA.2000;283:2701-2711. Cohen J. Cameroon Suspends AIDS Study. Science, Science Now 2005 Feb: 4. Singh JA, Mills EJ. The abandoned trials of pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV: what went wrong? PLoS Med 2005;2: e234 Atatah C. Douala AIDS drug controversy: medical council says trials violated ethical norms. Post News Line 2005. www.postnewsline.com/2005/02/strongdouala_ai.html (accessed 15 Jan 2008). http://www.actupparis.org/article1734.html?var_recherche=tenofovir (accessed 15 Jan 2008) http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-documentdoi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020234ct=1SESSID=3b4fdb3c51bc2ee0983c4abb37ad4ffa (accessed 15 Jan 2008) KIPNIS K., Vulnerability in research subjects: a bioethical taxonomy, in NATIONAL BIOETHICS ADVISORY COMMISSION, Ethical and Policy Issues in Research Involving Human Participants, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. G1-G13, p. G5. http://www.academiavita.org/template.jsp?sez=Pubblicazionipag=testo/et_ricbiom/colombo/colombolang=english (accessed 15 Jan 2008) www.medscape.com/viewarticle/408956_3

The Role of Hermaphrodites in Society Essay -- Sociology Essays Resear

The Role of Hermaphrodites in Society In Ruth Gilbert’s At the Border’s of the Human, she discusses society’s interest in hermaphrodites in terms of â€Å"people’s desire to examine, scrutinize, and display objects which are alien, strange and other† (6). The anomalous and bizarre spectacle of the hermaphroditic body has drawn the focus of scientists since the early sixteenth century. Hermaphrodites have long evoked a â€Å"mixture of disgust and desire, and fear and fascination†(Gilbert 150) that has led to their position as objects of scientific scrutiny. As defined by Random House Webster’s College Dictionary, a hermaphrodite is â€Å"an individual in which reproductive organs of both sexes are present†. Besides hermaphrodites challenging society’s physical norms, they challenge and have recently changed its cultural norms as well. In ancient societies, dual-sexed beings were either â€Å"exterminated, considered to be beings of suffering, or regarded as strange phenomena† (Brisson 40). Their roles in society were nonexistent because they were viewed as â€Å"threatening deviance from the...